Conventional battery

----Guoan Energy Technology (Dongguan) Co., Ltd.  R&D Center  Compiled by

Definitions and Characteristics ‌

Conventional batteries refer to the batteries commonly used in the market today:

Conventional materials: Lithium Cobalt Oxide, Ternary Lithium, Lithium Iron Phosphate, Lithium Manganese Oxide, Mixed materials (Cobalt + Ternary, Ternary + Manganese, Lithium Iron + Manganese, etc.)

Conventional operating temperature: discharge -20℃ to 55℃, charge 0℃ to 45℃

Conventional structure: cylindrical, polymer square, polymer cylindrical, steel shell square

Lithium Cobalt Oxide Batteries:

I. ‌Structure and Working Principle of Lithium Cobalt Oxide Batteries ‌

Lithium cobalt oxide batteries use lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO₂) as the positive electrode material, graphite as the negative electrode, and an organic solution or polymer as the electrolyte, achieving charging and discharging through the intercalation and deintercalation of lithium ions between the positive and negative electrodes‌.

‌Charging process‌: Lithium ions deintercalate from the positive electrode (LiCoO₂ → Li₁₋ₓCoO₂ + xLi⁺ + xe⁻) and intercalate into the graphite layers of the negative electrode (6C + xLi⁺ + xe⁻ → LiₓC₆)‌45.

‌Discharging process‌: Lithium ions deintercalate from the negative electrode and return to the positive electrode, forming a stable structure (Li₁₋ₓCoO₂ + xLi⁺ + xe⁻ → LiCoO₂)‌45.

II. ‌Performance Characteristics

Advantages

• ‌High Energy Density‌: Tap density reaches 2.4-3.2g/cm³, suitable for high volumetric specific capacity requirements of small devices‌.
• ‌Excellent Cycle Performance‌: Capacity degradation per cycle <0.05%, first discharge specific capacity >135mAh/g‌.
• ‌Stable Voltage Platform‌: 3.6V discharge platform accounts for >85%, stable output‌.

Disadvantages

• ‌High Cost‌: Cobalt resources are scarce and concentrated in Congo (DRC), with drastic price fluctuations (cobalt prices once fell to 140,000 yuan/ton in early 2025, then rebounded due to export bans)‌.
• ‌Safety Risks‌: High temperatures or overcharging can easily trigger thermal runaway, requiring strict battery management systems‌.
• ‌Limited Actual Capacity‌: Only about 50% of the theoretical capacity (approx. 140mAh/g)‌.

III. ‌Application Areas ‌

• ‌Consumer Electronics‌: Dominates the market for portable devices such as mobile phones and laptops, due to small size and high energy density‌.
• ‌Small Power Devices‌: Adopted by some drones and power tools, but with limited application due to cost constraints‌.

IV. ‌Market Dynamics and Challenges ‌

• ‌Cobalt Price Volatility Impact‌: After Congo (DRC) suspended cobalt exports in 2025, the price of lithium cobalt oxide materials increased by 22.22% within a week, driving up battery costs‌.
• ‌Competition from Alternative Materials‌: Lithium iron phosphate and ternary materials (nickel cobalt manganese/aluminum) are squeezing lithium cobalt oxide's share in the power battery sector due to their cost advantages and safety‌.
• ‌Supply Chain Risks‌: 80% of domestic cobalt relies on imports, and corporate inventory is low, intensifying short-term price competition‌.

V. ‌Technology Development Trends ‌

• ‌Material Modification‌: Research and development of doping and coating technologies to improve thermal stability and mitigate safety issues‌.
• ‌Recycling System Improvement‌: Reducing reliance on primary cobalt through waste battery recycling‌.
• In summary, lithium cobalt oxide batteries hold a core position in the consumer electronics field due to their performance advantages, but resource constraints and cost pressures are driving the industry to transition towards diversified material systems‌.

Ternary Lithium Batteries:

Positive electrode material: Ternary Lithium (three elements: Nickel (Ni), Cobalt (Co), Manganese (Mn)

Classified by different ratios, mainly: 5-series ternary, 6-series ternary, 8-series ternary.

5-series ternary: Nickel (Ni), Cobalt (Co), Manganese (Mn) ratio: 5:2:3 (abbreviated as: 523 ternary)

6-series ternary: Nickel (Ni), Cobalt (Co), Manganese (Mn) ratio: 6:2:2 (abbreviated as: 622 ternary)

8-series ternary: Nickel (Ni), Cobalt (Co), Manganese (Mn) ratio: 8:1:1 (abbreviated as: 811 ternary)

The above ratios may be slightly adjusted according to the technical, machinery, and other requirements of different cell manufacturers. The progression from 5-series to 6-series to 8-series represents an improvement, mainly in comprehensive performance aspects such as capacity density, discharge rate, and lifespan. Naturally, the technical, process, equipment, and environmental requirements for cell manufacturing are also higher, and the cost is also higher. Currently, all three materials are commonly used, chosen based on different capacities, rates, and other performance requirements, as well as production equipment and environmental control. Each of the three materials above has its own advantages; there is no distinction of good or bad, only a better match.

Characteristics and Applications

‌523 Ternary Material (LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2) has the following characteristics‌:

• ‌Composition Ratio‌: 523 ternary material consists of 50% Nickel (Ni), 20% Cobalt (Co), and 30% Manganese (Mn). This ratio gives the material advantages in electrochemical performance, especially in terms of energy density and cycle life‌.
• ‌Energy Density and Cycle Life‌: 523 ternary material has high energy density and good cycle life. Its theoretical gravimetric capacity is approximately 280mAh/g, and the actual specific capacity on the market can reach over 180mAh/g‌13. This material is widely used in electric vehicles, portable electronic devices, and energy storage systems, as it can meet the requirements for high energy demand and long lifespan‌.
• Safety: Compared to other lithium-ion battery materials such as lithium iron phosphate (LFP) or lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA), 523 ternary materials have relatively lower safety. In practical applications, special attention needs to be paid to thermal runaway issues and safety management.
• Production Process: The production process of 523 ternary materials is relatively mature, mainly through co-precipitation of precursors Ni0.5Co0.2Mn0.3(OH)2 mixed with lithium salt followed by solid-state sintering. The sintering temperature is relatively low, usually around 700℃, which helps reduce production costs.
• Market Application: Due to its advantages in energy density and cost, 523 ternary material has become one of the most widely used ternary materials in the market. Especially in the Chinese lithium battery market, 523 material was once the most popular national material due to its relatively high specific capacity and low cost advantages.

622 ternary material (NCM622) is a lithium-ion battery cathode material composed of three metal elements: nickel, cobalt, and manganese, with its full name being nickel cobalt manganese ternary material (LiNi0.6Co0.2Mn0.2O2).

Characteristics

• High Energy Density: NCM622 has a high energy density, capable of reaching over 200mAh/g, which allows it to provide longer battery life and meet users' demands for battery capacity.
• Excellent Cycle Life: NCM622 boasts excellent cycle life, maintaining high capacity and stable performance even after numerous cycles, making it particularly suitable for long-term use devices such as electric vehicles.
• Fast Charge/Discharge Performance: NCM622 exhibits high charge and discharge rate performance, enabling rapid charging and discharging processes, which is crucial for applications requiring frequent charging, such as electric vehicles.
• Good Electrochemical Stability: NCM622 has a stable structure, high electrical conductivity, and good electrochemical stability, which can effectively improve the battery's cycle life and safety performance.

Application Areas

• Electric Vehicles: Due to NCM622's high energy density and excellent cycle life, it has broad application prospects in the field of electric vehicles, providing longer driving range and meeting users' demands for electric vehicle mileage.
• Portable Electronic Devices: NCM622 can also be applied to portable electronic devices such as mobile phones and tablets. Its high energy density and fast charge/discharge performance can provide these devices with longer usage time and faster charging speeds.
• Energy Storage Systems: NCM622 can also be used in energy storage systems, such as solar energy storage systems and wind energy storage systems. Its high energy density and good cycle life can provide reliable energy storage and release capabilities.

The main characteristics of 811 ternary lithium batteries include high energy density, long lifespan, and low self-discharge rate. The cathode material of this battery consists of 80% nickel, 10% cobalt, and 10% manganese, with an energy density that can reach over 300Wh/kg, or even higher. High energy density means that 811 ternary lithium batteries can carry more electrical energy in the same volume, thereby extending the driving range of electric vehicles 2.

Additionally, 811 ternary lithium batteries also have the following characteristics:

• Cost-effectiveness: Due to the widespread distribution and stable price of nickel resources, the cost per KWh of 811 batteries is relatively low, aligning with the trend of future large-scale industrialization. However, the technical, process, equipment, and environmental requirements for cell manufacturing are higher, and the current cost is relatively higher than the other two materials.
• Thermal Stability: Although 811 batteries offer advantages of high energy density and long lifespan, their high nickel content also brings higher thermal runaway risks and cycle life issues. Therefore, in practical applications, corresponding measures need to be taken to ensure battery safety and reliability.
• Technical Threshold: High-nickel ternary materials have a higher technical threshold, with strict requirements for preparation processes, equipment, and production environment. Currently, most domestic manufacturers (except for small cell factories) are fully equipped and have already applied them in the market, with very mature and complete solutions.

Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery

I. Basic Overview

Lithium iron phosphate batteries (LiFePO₄) use lithium iron phosphate as the cathode material and carbon as the anode, with a nominal single cell voltage of 3.2V and a charge cut-off voltage of 3.6-3.65V. Their working principle is based on the migration of lithium ions between the positive and negative electrodes during charging and discharging 34. Compared to ternary lithium batteries, their raw materials do not contain rare metals like cobalt and nickel, making them more cost-effective.

II. Market Status

In 2025, the global new energy vehicle market will see an explosion in demand for lithium iron phosphate batteries, with multiple automakers signing long-term orders: Ford signed an agreement with CATL to secure supply from 2026-2030, covering Shenxing SuperFast Charging Batteries; Renault partnered with LG Energy Solution and CATL, with a procurement volume reaching 39GWh from 2025-2030.

In February 2025, among China's power battery installed capacity, lithium iron phosphate accounted for 81.5% (28.4GWh), far exceeding ternary batteries.

III. Technical Advantages

• Safety: High thermal stability, low thermal runaway risk, suitable for high-safety demand scenarios such as electric buses;
• Economical: Low raw material costs, reduced vehicle production costs, more competitive end prices;
• Cycle Life: Over 2000 cycles, slow capacity degradation, suitable for long-period applications like energy storage power stations;
• Environmental Adaptability: Good high-temperature stability, low self-discharge rate, supports fast charging.

IV. Application Areas

• New Energy Vehicles: Automakers such as Tesla, Volkswagen, and BMW plan to adopt lithium iron phosphate batteries in their models;
• Energy Storage Systems: Long lifespan and high safety make it the preferred choice for energy storage power stations;
• Global Expansion: Chinese companies are accelerating their expansion into overseas markets, with an estimated 750GWh battery demand in Europe by 2030 expected to adopt the lithium iron phosphate route.

V. Recycling and Environmental Protection

Lanjun New Energy's developed recycling process uses ozone leaching technology to separate iron and lithium ions, improving recycling efficiency and promoting sustainable development in the industry.

VI. Future Trends

• Technological advancements: Iteration of high-density, high-rate products to meet fast-charging needs;
• Market expansion: Global demand is expected to continue to grow, with Chinese manufacturers leading technology output and production capacity layout.
• Lithium iron phosphate batteries, with their comprehensive performance advantages, are gradually consolidating their core position in the new energy field.

Lithium Manganese Oxide Batteries

I. Basic Characteristics

• Lithium manganese oxide batteries use spinel-type lithium manganese oxide (LiMn₂O₄) as the core cathode material. It has a three-dimensional lithium-ion channel structure with a theoretical specific capacity of 148mAh/g. Its characteristics include:
• High voltage: A single cell voltage reaches 3.7V, reducing the number of battery pack series connections and lowering the overall cost;
• Safety: Only smoke, no fire, in puncture and compression tests; high-temperature stability is superior to ternary lithium batteries;
• Environmental friendliness: Manganese resources are abundant and non-toxic, with less pollution during production.

II. Performance Advantages and Shortcomings

Advantages:

• Low cost: Abundant manganese resources, bill of materials (BOM) lower than ternary lithium batteries, and PACK costs are further optimized due to the reduced number of batteries;
• Good rate performance: The three-dimensional structure supports fast charging and discharging, suitable for high-power scenarios (such as power tools, drones);
• Low-temperature performance: It can still maintain a high capacity at -20℃.

Shortcomings:

• Relatively short cycle life: The cycle life of unmodified lithium manganese oxide batteries is 200-300 times, lower than lithium iron phosphate (over 2000 times);
• Lower energy density: Typical value is about 123mAh/g, lower than ternary lithium but higher than some lithium iron phosphate batteries.

III. Application Areas

• Electric two-wheelers/light vehicles: Due to their low cost and high safety, they have become the mainstream choice;
• Energy storage devices: Suitable for small and medium-sized energy storage systems, such as household energy storage and communication base stations;
• New energy vehicles: Some models are used in hybrid power systems, but due to limitations in cycle performance, they have not become mainstream power batteries.

IV. Directions for Technological Improvement

Through surface modification (inhibiting manganese dissolution) and doping (alleviating the Jahn-Teller effect), the cycle life can be improved to over 2000 times. For example, Xiangtan Electric plans to introduce intelligent equipment and industrial internet technology to optimize the production capacity and quality of 30,000 tons of spinel-type lithium manganese oxide battery materials per year.

----Guoan Energy Technology (Dongguan) Co., Ltd.  R&D Center  Compiled by